Literature Review > Visual Rhetoric
Visual rhetoric, as defined by Phillips (1997), is "an expression that systematically deviates from expectation through a departure from convention", in the context of how standard advertising imagery is perceived. (Phillips, 1997) This deviation is oft times presented in oddly juxtaposed imagery that makes consumers use their learned cultural vocabularies, conventions, and common experiences to interpret the meaning of the advertisement. In making this deviation or "casting" visual imagery, advertising images that use visual rhetoric are perceived as "complex combinations of learned pictorial schemata" that must be cognitively processed by focused, attentive consumers. (Scott, 1994) These visually rhetorical images don't bear any likeness to nature, but instead use radically altered product usage scenarios presented in the form of a riddle or visual trope.
A trope, or riddle-based advertisement consists of a juxtaposed visual, or "pictorial metaphor", combined with a brand image or logo. Traditionally, these advertisements contain very few verbal cues and rely, for the most part, on imagery that conveys a complex product usage scenario. For consumers, these advertisements allow for multiple meanings to be derived depending on the consumer's own mental model regarding the product and its unique attributes. It can be assumed that when consumers are exposed to such advertisements, they will attempt to process the meaning with the most positive of intentions. As an advertisement, consumers know that it is meant to promote a product or service and therefore is most likely to have a positive connotation. (Phillips, 1997)
Based upon Scott's (1994) theory of visual rhetoric, consumers will process complex advertising imagery via the central persuasion route because it is not possible to cognitively process visually rhetorical advertisements without focusing on their intended meaning. Interpretation of an advertisement hinges on "reading" the visual in terms of the graphics and layout to glean an overarching meaning instead of taking the design components as differentiating factors in cognitive development. Seeing an advertisement, or at all, is seen as a highly cognitive, learned process that the nature of which "rests first on the purpose of looking." In doing this looking, consumers will evaluate imagery based on the style in which it is rendered and the camera's point of view. Advertising images are, after all, "complex cultural artifacts." (Scott, 1994)
Using Scott's (1994) theoretical development as an impetus, Phillips (1997) conducted a qualitative study that examined pictorial metaphors as a method for advertisers to transmit meaning to consumers. The main assumption taken at the outset of her study was that consumers must interpret visually rhetorical images in a figurative fashion that ignored the "irrelevant similarities" presented. This interpretation was termed an implicature and taken as an inferential technique used by consumers to derive meaning from imagery. The type of implicatures, either strong or weak, and the inferential method used to derive them were the major factors under investigation. A total of 49 respondents were recruited and asked to respond to a series of six (6) advertisements that used pictorial metaphor to communicate their message. In addition, the advertising producers responsible for the print advertisements were interviewed to determine whether the implicatures made by consumers were what they had intended when creating the advertisements.
The results interpreted from this study indicate that consumers are able to process visually rhetorical advertisements; however, on occasion "intuitive leaps" are made when a weak implicature is encountered. When discussing their exposure to advertisements, the study respondents indicated that the visual cues presented clued them in to a figurative processing route. In processing the advertisements, the respondents were found to use cultural and personal references as cues to develop an acceptable explanation or implicature, further validating Scott's (1994) previous suppositions. In addition, many relied on knowledge about general product attributes to associate meaning with the image, for example, a teddy bear renders an image of softness when placed with fabric softener. Phillips (1997) concludes that consumers are capable of complex analysis of visual advertising messages; however, more research must be done to understand how consumers are "thinking into" advertising imagery. (Phillips, 1997)
In 1999, McQuarrie and Mick (1999) followed up on their previous research as well as that of Scott (1994) and Phillips (1997), in a visual rhetoric study that encompassed text-interpretive, experimental, and reader response research methodologies. Their study was grounded in the idea that rhetorical visuals represent an important part of the advertising landscape and have two major effects on consumer response, 1) increased elaboration and 2) increased pleasure. Their primary hypothesis given for increased elaboration was the concept of "artful deviance" which presumed that the incongruous imagery presented in the advertisement would provoke further thought, or elaboration. (McQuarrie & Mick, 1999)
The conclusions of their research indicate that visual rhetoric, when used in advertising, is a "subtle but powerful device capable of producing a more positive attitude toward the ad associated with a surplus of favorable over unfavorable elaboration." In addition, as a product of looking at cultural differences among respondents, it was found that those respondents who were not native United States citizens had a harder time interpreting the advertisements. This further supports Scott's (1994) work that presented the idea that cultural perceptions and influence have a great impact on interpretation of meaning. As a general implication for future research, it was found that consumers are paying more attention to visuals in advertising and giving them more weight when it comes to meaning. (McQuarrie & Mick, 1999)
Building on research completed by Phillips (2000), Ketelaar et al. (2004) set out to determine whether need for cognition and comprehension could possibly moderate liking of visually rhetorical advertisements. Phillips (2000) had indicated that "closed" advertisements were more effective than open advertisements because they were more comprehensible for consumers. Ketelaar et al. (2004) sought to challenge these results by conducting a study on highly motivated, targeted consumers whose need for cognition and product involvement were higher than average. This study was conducted on one hundred and forty-nine (149) automobile design students using advertisements for name brand luxury cars, Mercedes, Volkswagen, and Volvo respectively.
Regardless of the optimal processing conditions observed, open advertisements were still found to be less effective than closed advertisements. The main reason for this result was the ease of interpretation for closed advertisements among the respondents. Open advertisements were appreciated least when respondents were not able to summon an adequate interpretation and most appreciated when respondents were able to indicate a positive interpretation, quickly. In other words, the less time spent resolving the riddle, the more positive attitudes became for respondents. Basically, the effectiveness of open advertisements is mediated by their ease of interpretation in the consumer's mind. (Ketelaar et al., 2004)
The most positive results for open advertisements came from additional research conducted in 2001 by Ketelaar et al. This qualitative research study found that consumers referred to positive product features as the result of seeing an open advertisement for a given product (Levi's Jeans), while, on the other hand, respondents reported being sold a product when they were exposed to closed advertisements that focused on a call to action. Overwhelmingly, the respondents in this research spent more time processing open advertisements because the product representation in the advertisement did not fit their preconceived notion of what this type of material should look like. Overall, respondents reacted positively to open advertisements; however it is important that a balance be struck between level of ambiguity and ad processing time. Consumers like open advertisements but can become increasingly annoyed with them if processing takes too long. (Ketelaar et al., 2001)
As evidenced in this presentation of the literature, visual riddles are an intriguing and effective way to break through the clutter of advertising messages because they are appealing and make the consumer stop to centrally process the meaning of the imagery. Albeit contradictory findings emerged regarding whether open or closed advertisements are more effective, it can be said that consumers find open, visually rhetorical advertisements to be interesting and likable. In each case of research presented, magazine advertisements were used; this presents an interesting applicability to the testing of open, online advertising because both presentations would be via internally controlled media. As the focus of this paper is on the application of visual rhetoric concepts to interactive advertising design, the following sections will discuss how consumers process information in an online setting and the role of interactivity therein.